Many people do not realize that Caddo once had over 200 black residents. Most of them were freed slaves of the tribes*, a complicated story for another day. Other residents were ex-slaves of the south, often called “state Negroes” and resented by many freedmen. We know little of the daily living conditions of the black residents of early Caddo. I have pieced together as much as possible by carefully reading the census, old newspapers, school records, tax rolls, and family stories. There are no pictures of the homes. No class photos of the school. No advertisements for black merchants. There are a few photos of people, such as this one of blacks at work on the Caddo water system, which was completed in August of 1910. However, it is not clear if these are even local residents.* In 1907, at the completion of the Dawes Roll, freedmen eligible for land allotments in Oklahoma numbered 23,415.
Homes
Most black residents lived in an area just east of town, across the Katy railroad tracks. Others farmed in outlying areas. Tax records from 1910 show that most of the lots across the tracks were actually owned by white residents. However, tax and census records indicate a few black land owners. Eli Lewis owned Lot 1 of Block 47. The Negro Church M. E. was located on Lot 3 of Block 53. James Sephus and Ben Nail each owned half of Lot 4, Block 53, and John Cobb is shown as the owner of half of Lot 8, Block 53; the Negro Baptist Church was located on the north half. Lots 6 and 7 of Block 54 were the site of the Negro School house. Frances Fields owned half of Lot 2 of Block 55. Ben Nail, Jr. owned Lot 3 of Block 59 and is also listed on a transfer of Lot 4, Block 53 in 1911 just after the death of James Sephus’ wife. Josie McGee may have retained Lot 11, Block 43 after the death of J. B. McGee. Robert Abernathy is probably the “R. W. Abernathy” who owned Lot 3 of Block 47. Pithinia Cobb is most likely the “Parthena Cobb”, listed as the owner of 1/3 of Lot 7 of Block 52. Sarah Dodd was the owner of Lot 6, Block 53. Priscilla Barr owned Lot 9 of Block 54.
A few lived in town, in small dwellings behind their employer’s home. Only a few black residents are listed as “servants” in white households on the census. Most list their occupation as laborer, laundress, cook, or doing “odd jobs”. Saralee McDonald is listed as a servant of the Grant Burch family and Amie Smith was a servant of Alvah McCoy. That may or may not be an indication that they lived in or on the premises. Saralee was the “nursemaid” of the Bilbo children in 1899. That seems like it would be a “live in” job.
Streets listed on the 1901 map included Pine, Division, Cross, Oak, Cherry, Bell, Mulberry, Cotton Lane, Church, Wilson, and Vine. There were apparently some changes and consolidations after most of the residents left. This map was made in 1915.
Business
This item from the Caddo Herald is the only one I’ve found that refers to a business operated by a black resident. According to the census George Robinson was a widower, 51 years old, born in Oklahoma. His father was from Alabama and his mother from Mississippi. He owned his property, sold groceries and as indicated by the article, lived in his building. Apparently it was a substantial structure since it had two stories. It was located on Pine Street just two doors from Ben Nail.
October 7, 1910
Negro Store Dynamited
Last Saturday night about midnight, someone attempted to blow up the store of George Robinson, colored, and it looks very much as if they intended blowing up the proprietor of the store, for the charge of dynamite was placed under the part of the building known to be George’s sleeping quarters and had it not been for the fact that he had just a day or so before moved his bed to another part of the building, he would certainly have been killed.
The explosion tore a great hole through the first floor, the ceiling and floor of the second story, and made a pretty big hole in the roof of the building.
Officers have been busy trying to catch the dynamiters but as yet no clue has been obtained.
School
It was against the law for owners to teach their slaves to read or write, so after emancipation there were many, many problems to be solved. School records available for the Choctaw “Neighborhood” Schools of District 3, Blue County include the Freedmen’s School, Caddo. A receipt from December 30, 1887 shows that Ben Nail was paid $8 for “services rendered as a local trustee” of the school. There are some positive notes written about the progress of the students, but also some comments about poor attendance, often due to their work in the cotton fields. “They learn fast, but they would do much better if they could be there regularly.” Mrs. M. E. Crowe, teacher, 1890. J. A. Daner (Dana) is listed as a teacher in 1887. Some receipts and records simply say “negro man teacher”.
Church
A newspaper item in 1902 mentions the colored Church of Christ in Caddo. There are two black churches listed on the tax rolls Caddo, 1910:
Block 53
Lot 3- Negro Church M. E.
Lot 8- Negro Baptist Church, N2; John Cobb, S2
The 1900 census for Caddo lists Thomas Smith as a “clergyman”. There are four black ministers listed on the 1910 census for Caddo. However, only one is listed as a “church” minister. The others are listed as “gospel” ministers, which may indicate that they were itinerant preachers.
1910 Census
John Robinson, minister-gospel
Thomas Anthony, minister-gospel
Fate Williams, minister-church
Samuel Doyle-minister-gospel
Work
A few of the black residents of Caddo are listed in white households as “servants”. Most women listed their occupation as laundress or cook. Most of the men were farmers, laborers for the railroad, workers in the cotton gins, or did “odd jobs”. John Swan was a wagon driver for a “grocer”. It does not say if he worked for a white grocer or for George Robinson, grocer, the only black merchant listed on the 1910 census. Albert West was a “delivery driver”. Austin Cole was a “teacher-public school”. Earlier records indicate that Caddo had a freedmen school as early as 1886. J. A. Dana was a teacher in 1887 and Ben Nail was a trustee. Mrs. M. E. Crowe taught in 1890, Alberta Reynolds in 1897.
Of course, it will be noted on the census that many of the women were quite young when they began to work for other families. And we know from newspaper and school reports that children worked in the local cotton fields and class schedules were adjusted accordingly. This harvest scheduling applied to the local white schools and even Southeastern Normal.
After the massive exodus of all black residents in 1911, there must have been some anxiety about how the local economy would function without black servants and laborers because this item appeared in the paper:
September 8, 1911
With the departure of the negroes there is plenty of work for all white people who may come to Caddo. The cotton must be picked, the gins must run, there is plenty of hauling and the like to do, besides cement workers, carpenters, and other lines are here to furnish employment. There is plenty to do and Caddo people will welcome those who desire to come here for the purpose of working and making a living, besides something for a rainy day. We have good free schools, city water, light taxes, and good government; what more can an immigrant desire? Come to Caddo.
Play
The Caddo Herald
June 9, 1899
The Double Springs colored ball team was defeated last Sunday by the Caddo colored team by a score of 10 to 14.
Families
Testimonies given to the Dawes Commission hint at some of the unique problems of the freedmen families. Many did not know the names of their parents, or the date of their own birth. Many events, such as births, marriages, and deaths were often related to the war, i.e. “I was married during the war”, “I was already grown before the war started”. Most remembered the day they were set free, “I was about five when we was set free” or “I was owned by Mr. Jones when we heard we was free”.
Some couples appeared to be legally married, while others had taken part in some sort of “arrangement” or ceremony that may or may not have later held up in court. And of course there were restrictions on marriages between the races:
The Negro Yearbook, 1914-1915
In Oklahoma forbidden marriage was defined as “any person of African descent with any person not of African descent”. The punishment was a $500 fine and imprisonment of one year.
I’m not sure what years the law, passed in 1908, was applicable, but I found only one couple in the 1910 census for Caddo who were listed as a “mixed race” couple.
Oak Street
Driver, Solomon, MU, 65, born in GA, married 30 years
Jane, Indian, 55, born in D. C.
Jesse, 9
Many of the families listed in the census had six or more children, but the enumerations also told a sad story. After the name of the wife there is a column for children “born” to her and another for children “living” at the time of the census. The number born is often twice the number still alive. You can also see by the birthdates that many women had a child nearly every year of their marriage.
Many families included young married couples, usually living with the wife’s parents, or several single men, or grandchildren, step-grandchildren, great-grandchildren. A careful examination of the census shows that there were a few large families in Caddo, such as the Fields, who were connected by several marriages with the neighbors. It is also interesting to note that there were quite a few residents over fifty years old and Mrs. Fields was estimated to be at least ninety, perhaps even the 95 she claimed.
Life must have been difficult for the black families of Caddo, 1910-11, especially for the mothers and children, who were usually the unwilling victims of the violence of their men. There were riots and lynchings and troubles throughout Oklahoma and Texas, as well as other parts of the South. Many of these were reported in The Herald and undoubtedly discussed around the dinner tables. There were curfews and stern warnings from local Ku Klux Klan members. The mass exodus of September 1911 meant leaving behind all of their security and much of their personal property and making a home “somewhere else” within a state filled with racial restrictions and fraught with danger.